This refers to beliefs and behaviors that are openly hostile toward a group of people based on their sex or gender. Misogyny, or the hatred of women, is an example of hostile sexism. These views may also apply to anyone with feminine traits and anyone who expresses their gender in a way that is associated with femininity.
Hostile sexism is dangerous. According to research , it is a risk factor for sexual harassment and gender-based violence.
A study found that men who endorsed hostile sexism were more likely to be physically abusive toward their partners, with alcohol use — another common risk factor — having less of an effect on rates of intimate partner violence among this group. This suggests that hostile sexism is a powerful driver of abuse in relationships. A study in Indonesia also found a positive link between hostile sexism and sexual assault.
In comparison to hostile sexism, benevolent sexism can be less obvious. It is a more socially accepted form and is much more likely to be endorsed by men and women. However, despite its name, this type of sexism is not truly benevolent. While benevolent sexism applies some positive traits to women and femininity, it still frames one sex or gender as weaker than another.
For example, the study found that men who endorsed benevolent sexism were more likely to support policies that limit the freedoms of pregnant women. This is a combination of benevolent and hostile sexism. People who engage in ambivalent sexism may vary between seeing women as good, pure, and innocent and seeing them as manipulative or deceitful, depending on the situation.
Some researchers argue that hostile and benevolent sexism support one another as part of a system. Benevolent sexism offers women protection in exchange for them adopting a more subordinate role, while hostile sexism targets those who deviate from this.
This refers to sexism that is entrenched in organizations and institutions, such as :. When policies, procedures, attitudes, or laws create or reinforce sexism, this is institutional sexism. Institutional sexism is widespread.
It can be hostile, benevolent, or ambivalent. One of the clearest indicators is the lack of gender diversity among political leaders and business executives. Another indicator is a gender pay gap. This refers to a difference in the average pay that women and men receive for similar work. In the U. Overall, women earn less than men in almost every occupation. This manifests during interactions with others.
Sexual harassment is sexualized mistreatment. Often, these comments are tinged with aggression. Sexual harassment can take place anywhere, including workplaces, public restrooms, and between friends and family members.
Unlike flattery or flirting, which happens between consenting adults, sexual harassment is often one-sided, and it exploits an uneven power dynamic.
This is what makes it threatening. Sexual harassment is also common in workplaces, particularly among women who work for tips, who work in male-dominated fields, or who do not have permanent legal immigration status. Sexual harassment can make people feel uncomfortable, scared, and even traumatized. Even if a person does not feel physically threatened at the time, it may cause or reinforce a fear of walking alone, wearing certain clothes, or being sexually assaulted.
This type of violence occurs in intimate relationships. It is also known as domestic abuse. Anyone can experience intimate partner abuse IPA , but it disproportionately affects women.
Gender inequity, sexist beliefs, and cultural practices that devalue women all increase the risk of IPA. This harmful practice involves removing parts of the female genitals, such as the clitoris and labia. Often, this happens before the person has reached the age of FGM causes significant mental and physical trauma. It also carries a risk of infection, sexual health problems, and fertility problems, as well as birth complications if a person becomes pregnant.
Sexual assault includes any unwanted, coerced, or forced sexual contact. Anyone can experience or commit sexual assault, but most survivors are female. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC , 1 in 5 women and 1 in 38 men experience attempted or completed rape during their lifetimes. Among trans people, the rate is just under 1 in 2. The long-term impact of widespread sexism is gender inequity. This refers to unfair and preventable differences between genders.
Most research on this focuses on the inequities between men and women. A study from Spain found that women in heterosexual relationships were involved in more than double the household chores that their male partners were. This is due to traditional gender roles and expectations. When heterosexual couples freely choose these roles, it may not cause problems. However, the study found that women who did more household labor reported higher levels of family conflict.
The uneven distribution of household labor also contributes to economic inequity. A report states that one-fifth of women who live in poverty in Europe are not employed, due to their domestic and caregiving responsibilities. Sexism negatively affects health and the healthcare system.
Exposure to prejudice, discrimination, and higher levels of unpaid work can cause chronic stress , which contributes to mental and physical health conditions. Lower wages also make it more difficult to access quality healthcare. And even when a person can access healthcare, sexism affects how doctors treat people. For example, a study notes that doctors regularly deny female patients birth control in order to coerce them into getting pap smears every year.
This prevents females from making decisions about and having control over their own bodies. Learn more about gender bias in medical diagnosis. The cumulative impact of sexism on the worldwide economy is huge.
Gender stereotypes do not need to be hostile to be harmful. Many workplace realities have been shaped by the belief that women and men have complementary characteristics , for example that men are individualistic and dominant, while women are caring and collaborative. However, stereotypically masculine characteristics are frequently valued more highly than stereotypically feminine characteristics examples given below , although there is evidence this is changing [2].
This is also true in the work context, where professional development books and programmes frequently urge women to stop displaying stereotypically feminine behaviour if they want to advance in their careers. I think the problem, to a very large degree, is that women are expected to be men. We create predictions about what people will do based on what we have encountered in the world.
These predictions can be based on direct experience, as well as on representations in society and culture. These are the past truths, half-truths and untruths that we have picked up to help us get on with life quickly [4]. The determination to create rules results in confirmation bias , where information that fits in with preconceived ideas is readily accepted, but information that challenges our beliefs is ignored [6].
0コメント